Example of fallacy advertisement - Fallacy red herring examples are tactics used to distract from an argument or issue at hand by introducing irrelevant or unrelated information. Visual distractors in advertising include the use of fast-paced and visually stimulating ads, which often contain bright colors and flashy graphics in order to grab attention away from the product being ...

 
An either-or fallacy occurs when someone claims there are only two possible options or sides in an argument when there are actually more. This is a manipulative method that forces others to accept the speaker’s viewpoint as legitimate, feasible, or ethical. This type of black-and-white thinking often appears in political speeches, …. What time does atwoods open

A fallacy arises when an incorrect idea is the basis for an argument. With endless variety, examine the most common types with these fallacy examples.Last updated: Jun 6, 2022 • 2 min read. Logical fallacies can help make a product appear more palatable and convince buyers to make a purchase. There are several ways advertisers can use faulty reasoning to drive sales.10 Jan 2022 ... The ad attacks the imagery of an Asian person, and thus, there is Ad Hominem fallacy. The overall approach based on the notion of dismissing ...Slippery slope fallacy examples. Advertisers resort to slippery slope fallacies when trying to sell us a number of everyday products. Slippery slope fallacy examples in advertising Slippery slope fallacy examples in advertising The slippery slope fallacy is a common persuasion technique in advertising. By appealing to emotions such as fear or ...Understanding Straw Man Fallacies. Here is a simple example of a straw man fallacy in a conversation between two people: A: “We should divert more federal funding to social programs as those help people manage their expenses and contribute to the economy.”. B: “That is completely ridiculous!Defining Fallacies. Fallacies are deceptive arguments or misleading patterns of reasoning that often seem persuasive and appear sound, yet under scrutiny, they don’t hold up to logic. In advertising, logical fallacies are employed to influence consumers emotionally rather than through rational or factual persuasion.These examples are enough to suggest that students won’t have to look far if they are asked to bring in examples of logical fallacies from the news or from advertising. The class can discuss what is wrong with the logic and why. An example of post hoc fallacy is the following line of reasoning: “Yesterday I had ice cream, and today I have a terrible stomachache. I’m sure the ice cream caused this.”. Although it is possible that the ice cream had something to do with the stomachache, there is no proof to justify the conclusion other than the order of events. Jun 26, 2023 · An example of this fallacy is an advertisement for Pedigree dog food that shows a sad-looking dog in a shelter and suggests that buying Pedigree will help dogs like him find loving homes. While this may appeal to the audience's emotions, it does not necessarily provide a logical reason to buy Pedigree. One of the many problems with fallacious reasoning is that it often seems reasonable. Politicians and advertisers can often take advantage of that to get us to ...Logical Fallacies. Fallacies are common errors in reasoning that will undermine the logic of your argument. Fallacies can be either illegitimate arguments or irrelevant points, and are often identified because they lack evidence that supports their claim. Avoid these common fallacies in your own arguments and watch for them in the arguments of ...1. Ad hominem. An ad hominem argument attempts to discredit a competitor directly as opposed to the quality of the goods or service they offer. The Latin phrase 'ad hominem' translates to 'against the person', meaning that a person is in some way unworthy or lacking in authority to make valid claims.Ad hominem short for argumentum ad hominem, refers to several types of arguments that are fallacious. Typically this term refers to a rhetorical strategy ...1. The fallacy of equivocation is an argument which exploits the ambiguity of a term or phrase which has occurred at least twice in an argument, such that on the first occurrence it has one meaning and on the second another meaning. A familiar example is: The end of life is death. Happiness is the end of life.May 21, 2023 · The ad hominem fallacy and the genetic fallacy are closely related in that they are both fallacies of relevance. In other words, they both involve arguments that use evidence or examples that are not logically related to the argument at hand. However, there is a difference between the two: Jul 30, 2019 · Updated on July 30, 2019. The appeal to ignorance is a fallacy based on the assumption that a statement must be true if it cannot be proven false — or false if it cannot be proven true. Also known as argumentum ad ignorantiam and the argument from ignorance . The term argumentum ad ignorantiam was introduced by John Locke in his "Essay ... In order to avoid a slippery slope fallacy, it is important to be critical and skeptical of the claims made by advertisers, and to demand evidence and logic for their arguments. Additionally, one ...1) Taking a statement as false because we don’t know if the statement is true. 2) Taking a statement as true because we don’t know if the statement is false. (Dowden, n.d.) Examples (respectively): 1) God does not exist because there is no evidence that proves His existence.Ad Hominem Fallacy. Ad hominem is a Latin phrase that translates to …1. “Teacher, I deserve the F I received on this exam to be dropped because I was sick the weekend before the exam and my dog died and I got in a car accident, so I couldn’t study that much.”. In this case, the student is making an irrelevant argument in an attempt to make the teacher feel sorry for him.Ad Hominem Fallacy. Ad hominem is a Latin phrase that translates to …Logical fallacies in advertising: Appeal to authority Tu quoque. The next name we want to mention on the list of logical fallacies in advertising means “you too” in English. Basically, this fallacy focuses on hypocrisy while ignoring the point being made. For example, when a fat person says exercising is good for health and helps control ...An example of this fallacy is an advertisement for Pedigree dog food that shows a sad-looking dog in a shelter and suggests that buying Pedigree will help dogs like him find loving homes. While this may appeal to the audience's emotions, it does not necessarily provide a logical reason to buy Pedigree.Feb 5, 2017 · Next will be the logical fallacy of “ Slippery Slope ” which occurs when an increasingly superficial and unacceptable consequences are drawn. In this tv commercial of DirectTv it says that when you get angry because of the poor signal, you’ll be overblowned and when you’re overblowned you’ll get an eye patch, when you get an eye patch ... In order to avoid a slippery slope fallacy, it is important to be critical and skeptical of the claims made by advertisers, and to demand evidence and logic for their arguments. Additionally, one ...Apr 10, 2023 · A logical fallacy is an argument that can be disproven through reasoning. This is different from a subjective argument or one that can be disproven with facts; for a position to be a logical fallacy, it must be logically flawed or deceptive in some way. Compare the following two disprovable arguments. While there are many examples of false assumptions, one example is “My science class is easy and my friend who is in chemistry says her class is so easy it is boring, so all scienc...Next will be the logical fallacy of “ Slippery Slope ” which occurs when an increasingly superficial and unacceptable consequences are drawn. In this tv commercial of DirectTv it says that when you get angry because of the poor signal, you’ll be overblowned and when you’re overblowned you’ll get an eye patch, when you get an eye patch ...Next will be the logical fallacy of “ Slippery Slope ” which occurs when an increasingly superficial and unacceptable consequences are drawn. In this tv commercial of DirectTv it says that when you get angry because of the poor signal, you’ll be overblowned and when you’re overblowned you’ll get an eye patch, when you get an eye patch ...The post hoc fallacy occurs when we draw a causal conclusion without sufficient evidence to support it. “Post hoc” is a shortened version of the Latin phrase “post hoc ergo propter hoc,” meaning “after this, therefore because of this.”. Post hoc fallacies are committed when one argues that because B happened immediately after A, A ...Formal fallacies are those readily seen as based on invalid logical forms. Examples of formal fallacies include the ad hominem argument, strawman fallacy, and appeal to ignorance. Informal fallacies are also often invalid, but their weaknesses are not formal. Examples of informal fallacies include the genetic fallacy and the fallacy of …Use emotions such as fear, hate, lust, embarrassment, prejudice, etc. to manipulate people instead of convince them of something with a sense of credibility. Let’s take a look at some specific examples of appeals to emotion so you can spot this logical fallacy in your everyday life and avoid using it yourself.A logical fallacy is a form of flawed reasoning strategically employed to make an argument appear more convincing than it truly is. In the realm of advertising, various fallacies abound, with some of the most prevalent ones being the appeal to authority, bandwagon appeal, and fear appeal.A logical fallacy is a form of flawed reasoning strategically employed to make an argument appear more convincing than it truly is. In the realm of advertising, various fallacies abound, with some of the most prevalent ones being the appeal to authority, bandwagon appeal, and fear appeal.Argumentum ad Populum (an appeal to popularity, public opinion or to the majority) is an argument, often emotively laden, for the acceptance of an unproved conclusion by adducing irrelevant evidence based on the feelings, prejudices, or beliefs of a large group of people. In general, the argument considered as a fallacy occurs due to taking ...Apr 5, 2023 · Red herring fallacy examples. Red herring fallacy can be observed in different contexts, such as in the media, in politics, or in advertising. Red herring fallacy example in advertising Red herrings are often used in advertising to attract and keep the audience’s attention. Old Spice, the deodorant brand, deploys this tactic. 14. The Ad Hominem Fallacy. An ad hominem fallacy occurs when you attack someone personally rather than using logic to refute their argument. Instead they’ll attack physical appearance, personal traits, or other irrelevant characteristics to criticize the other’s point of view. These attacks can also be leveled at institutions or groups ...An example of this fallacy is an advertisement for Pedigree dog food that shows a sad-looking dog in a shelter and suggests that buying Pedigree will help dogs like him find loving homes. While this may appeal to the audience's emotions, it does not necessarily provide a logical reason to buy Pedigree.Logical fallacies in advertising: Appeal to authority Tu quoque. The next name we want to mention on the list of logical fallacies in advertising means “you too” in English. Basically, this fallacy focuses on hypocrisy while ignoring the point being made. For example, when a fat person says exercising is good for health and helps control ...Logical Fallacy cartoons and comics. Logical fallacy cartoons, for when you want to poke fun at faulty reasoning. Whether it's ad hominem attacks or slippery slopes, CartoonStock has the perfect cartoons to illustrate logical fallacies. Just don't commit the fallacy of thinking you can live without them!Description. Argumentum ad populum is a type of informal fallacy, [1] [14] specifically a fallacy of relevance, [15] [16] and is similar to an argument from authority ( argumentum ad verecundiam ). [14] [4] [9] It uses an appeal to the beliefs, tastes, or values of a group of people, [12] stating that because a certain opinion or attitude is ...The Argument from Repetition, also known as Argumentum ad Nauseam, is a logical fallacy which occurs when someone attempts to convince an audience of a claim simply by repeating it multiple times. This fallacy is based on the idea that if something is said repeatedly, it must be true. This type of argument relies on the fallacy of appeal to ...10 TV Commercials with Logical fallacies. There are many logical fallacies in tv commercials, let me share a few with you. Let’s start with the logical fallacy of “ …Examples. Gravity must exist or we would all float off into space.There must be oxygen in the atmosphere otherwise fire would be impossible.The Earth can't be flat because that would make it impossible to sail around it.If free will doesn't exist then people aren't responsible for their actions which is absurd. Overview: Reductio Ad Absurdum.The red herring logical fallacy often occurs when someone doesn't have a good argument or counter-point. Fallacies are logical errors, usually in arguments, that people make which lead to inconsistent reasoning. In particular, this is an informal fallacy because the content of the premise (s) is what causes the misleading argument.These fallacies can be found in everyday conversations, political debates, advertising, and various forms of media. They are often used, intentionally or not, to persuade or manipulate an audience by appealing to emotion or exploiting cognitive biases. One of the most common types of informal fallacies is the ad hominem fallacy. This occurs ...Ad Hominem Extended Explanation. An Ad Hominem fallacy is a logical fallacy in which an argument is made based on attacking the character or personal traits of an individual, rather than focusing on the substance of the argument itself. This type of fallacy is often used as a means of discrediting an individual's opinion or argument without actually …Jun 6, 2022 · Logical fallacies can help make a product appear more palatable and convince buyers to make a purchase. There are several ways advertisers can use faulty reasoning to drive sales. “They’re so banal or trite that they can mean almost anything and nothing at the same time.” It’s a logical fallacy to assume that, just because x implies y, y therefore also impli...Ad Hominem Extended Explanation. An Ad Hominem fallacy is a logical fallacy in which an argument is made based on attacking the character or personal traits of an individual, rather than focusing on the substance of the argument itself. This type of fallacy is often used as a means of discrediting an individual's opinion or argument without actually …14 fallacies in advertising. Here are some typical marketing fallacies and examples of each. 1. Ad hominem. Customers are attracted by ad hominem arguments that cast doubt on the reliability of a competitor. Ad hominem, which means “against the person” in Latin, refers to a fallacy that seeks to discredit an individual or cause others to ...12 Fallacies in Advertising. Advertising employs a variety of persuasive techniques to influence consumer behavior. Most common logical fallacies are notably effective, manipulating our reasoning subtly. Let’s dive deeper into each type of fallacy, providing real-world examples from brands to illustrate how they are used to persuade consumers. 1.Let us consider five of the most common informal logical fallacies—arguments that may sound convincing but actually rely on a flaw in logic. (1) Red Herring Fallacy. Also known as: misdirection, smokescreen, clouding the issue, beside the point, and the Chewbacca defense. A Red Herring argument is one that changes the subject, distracting the ...Fallacies in Comics. Comic strips are a great place to find examples of informal fallacies. It seems that we tend to find improper reasoning funny. In the “Peanuts” comic strip below, Lucy is ad baculum incarnate. Note that the fallacy is not really made by Lucy making the threat, but by Charlie Brown, who is convinced by her “argument.”.Logical Fallacies. Fallacies are common errors in reasoning that will undermine the logic of your argument. Fallacies can be either illegitimate arguments or irrelevant points, and are often identified because they lack evidence that supports their claim. Avoid these common fallacies in your own arguments and watch for them in the arguments of ...The fallacy of division is an informal fallacy that occurs when one assumes that something true of a whole must also necessarily be true of its parts (Hansen, 2020). A simple fallacy of division example goes like this: Australian people are good at surfing. Matt is Australian. Therefore, Matt is good at surfing.Ad populum fallacy is a logical fallacy. More specifically, it is an informal fallacy of relevance because no relevant reasons are given to support the claim. In the example above, the premise (i.e., the fact that the book is a bestseller) is not sufficient evidence to accept the conclusion (i.e., you should read it).10. Appeal to Popular Opinion (Argumentum ad populum) Appeal to popular opinion is an informal fallacy. This fallacy occurs when someone is making an argument that a position is true because a great number (or the majority) of people hold to that position.If a study shows that people who wear glasses have above average intelligence, assuming that everyone who wears glasses is intelligent is an example of ecological fallacy. Applying...10 Feb 2017 ... Burger King is an example of Ad hominem because as we all know that burger are so delicious and sometimes we can feel that you want to eat more ...Jul 26, 2022 · 14. The Ad Hominem Fallacy. An ad hominem fallacy occurs when you attack someone personally rather than using logic to refute their argument. Instead they’ll attack physical appearance, personal traits, or other irrelevant characteristics to criticize the other’s point of view. These attacks can also be leveled at institutions or groups ... Slippery slope fallacy examples. Advertisers resort to slippery slope fallacies when trying to sell us a number of everyday products. Slippery slope fallacy examples in advertising Slippery slope fallacy examples in advertising The slippery slope fallacy is a common persuasion technique in advertising. By appealing to emotions such as fear or ...A fallacy relying on inductive reasoning, appeal to the stone is a particularly vulnerable fallacy in contexts where new evidence may eventually reveal itself. Example 1: Speaker 1: Humans share a common ancestor with the …Feb 13, 2024 · Types and examples of fallacies. The most common logical fallacies include the following: Ad Hominem Argument. Appeal to Authority. Appeal to Fear Fallacy. Appeal to Hypocrisy. Appeal to Ignorance. Appeal to Pity. Appeal to Reason Fallacy. 12 Fallacies in Advertising. Advertising employs a variety of persuasive techniques to influence consumer behavior. Most common logical fallacies are notably effective, manipulating our reasoning subtly. Let’s dive deeper into each type of fallacy, providing real-world examples from brands to illustrate how they are used to persuade consumers. 1.The ad populum fallacy is the mistake of claiming something is true just because many people believe it.Logical Fallacies: The ad includes circular reasoning, hasty generalization, appeal to false authority, and ad populum. ... An example of this fallacy is an advertisement for Pedigree dog food that shows a sad-looking dog in a shelter and suggests that buying Pedigree will help dogs like him find loving homes. While this may …5 Burden of Proof Fallacy Examples. 1. “God (or martians, miracles, ghosts, Santa, fairies, etc) exists because no one has proven otherwise.”. If something (such as God, etc.) cannot be proven to be either true or false, it will remain unproven until there is evidence proving otherwise.10 Apr 2023 ... A logical fallacy is an argument that can be disproven through reasoning. This is different from a subjective argument or one that can be ...The fallacious attack can also be direct to membership in a group or institution. Examples: Student: Hey, Professor Moore, we shouldn't have to read this book ...Are these arguments always fallacious? Is the attack always aimed at the opposing arguer in the discussion? Are all arguments that commit the ad hominem fallacy ...Whether it's ad hominem attacks or slippery slopes, CartoonStock has the perfect cartoons to illustrate logical fallacies. Just don't commit the fallacy of thinking you can live without them! logical fallacies argumentation …Fallacies of insufficient evidence occur when the premises do not provide sufficient evidence to support the conclusion. Though there are several logical ...Other informal fallacies include the red herring fallacy and the ad hominem fallacy. In contrast, a formal fallacy is an argument where the conclusion does not logically follow the premise. The appeal to probability fallacy is a formal fallacy. Here is an example: If we cancel our trip, the weather will be beautiful.Logical Fallacies. Fallacies are common errors in reasoning that will undermine the logic of your argument. Fallacies can be either illegitimate arguments or irrelevant points, and are often identified because they lack evidence that supports their claim. Avoid these common fallacies in your own arguments and watch for them in the arguments of ...12 Fallacies in Advertising. Advertising employs a variety of persuasive techniques to influence consumer behavior. Most common logical fallacies are notably effective, manipulating our reasoning subtly. Let’s dive deeper into each type of fallacy, providing real-world examples from brands to illustrate how they are used to persuade consumers. 1.Red herring fallacy examples. Red herring fallacy can be observed in different contexts, such as in the media, in politics, or in advertising. Red herring fallacy example in advertising Red herrings are often used in advertising to attract and keep the audience’s attention. Old Spice, the deodorant brand, deploys this tactic.Example 1: Direct Name-Calling. Oftentimes, the most obvious example of a fallacy is a direct attack on someone. Calling someone a name or insulting his or her ...4 Logical Fallacies in Advertising. Advertisements deploy bandwagon, appeal to authority, false dilemma, and red herring fallacies to entertain and compel consumers. Ads mislead consumers by using fallacies, which present invalid or faulty reasoning to make an argument. Imagine it’s a typical Sunday evening.Feb 5, 2017 · Next will be the logical fallacy of “ Slippery Slope ” which occurs when an increasingly superficial and unacceptable consequences are drawn. In this tv commercial of DirectTv it says that when you get angry because of the poor signal, you’ll be overblowned and when you’re overblowned you’ll get an eye patch, when you get an eye patch ... Advertising employs a variety of persuasive techniques to influence consumer behavior. Most common logical fallacies are notably effective, manipulating …Jun 24, 2022 · Learn about what logical fallacies are in advertising, why advertisers use them and 14 common fallacies marketers use with examples to help you identify them. Ad populum fallacy is a logical fallacy. More specifically, it is an informal fallacy of relevance because no relevant reasons are given to support the claim. In the example above, the premise (i.e., the fact that the book is a bestseller) is not sufficient evidence to accept the conclusion (i.e., you should read it).Ad hominem fallacy (or ad hominem) is an attempt to discredit someone’s argument by personally attacking them. Instead of discussing the argument itself, criticism is directed toward the opponent’s character, which is irrelevant to the discussion. Ad hominem fallacy example. Person 1: I think it is important to enforce minimum-wage ...Sep 30, 2022 · 10. Slippery slope. A slippery slope fallacy argues that if the outcome of a sequence of events is bad or negative, the original event and idea for its inception was also bad. Marketing strategies may use this fallacy to invalidate a competitor's event or product. The ad hominem fallacy: when ads get personal. The ad hominem fallacy is a type of faulty …As with many other red herring examples on this list, we can see that the red herring’s purpose is to shift accountability and re-frame the debate to terms more favorable to the person creating the red herring. 4. “You Should Just be Grateful”. Scenario: Women march for their rights on the streets.Ad Hominem Fallacy. Ad hominem is a Latin phrase that translates to …Formal fallacies are those readily seen as based on invalid logical forms. Examples of formal fallacies include the ad hominem argument, strawman fallacy, and appeal to ignorance. Informal fallacies are also often invalid, but their weaknesses are not formal. Examples of informal fallacies include the genetic fallacy and the fallacy of composition.

The bandwagon fallacy is an informal fallacy, which means that the illogical part of a bandwagon argument is its content, not its construction. In other words, there’s nothing inherently illogical about claiming that something is popular, positive, or effective because it’s enjoyed by many. The fallacy lies in the claim that because .... Massage hwy 6

example of fallacy advertisement

29 May 2018 ... The famous “I like Ike” television commercials were nothing but this fallacy set to a snappy jingle. Example. Everybody likes Mr. Jones! You ...The Tu Quoque fallacy is a form of the ad hominem fallacy which does not attack a person for random, unrelated things; instead, it is an attack on someone for a perceived fault in how they have presented their case. This form of the ad hominem is called tu quoque, which means "you too" because it typically occurs when a person is attacked …Examples of Identifying Logical Fallacies. When someone says, “You can’t trust Jamie’s opinion on movies, she’s a science nerd”, they’re making an Ad Hominem fallacy. This isn’t fair because what Jamie loves has nothing to do with her movie tastes; they should talk about her movie points, not her hobbies. If your brother claims ...Straw Man Fallacy - Misrepresenting someone's argument to make it easier to attack. Red Herring Fallacy - Introducing an irrelevant topic to divert attention from the original issue. False Analogy - Comparisons between two things that seem similar but are very different. Ad Hominem Attacks - Attacking the person instead of their argument.An equivocation fallacy occurs when a word or phrase is used with two different meanings in the same argument, leading to confusion or a misleading conclusion. By the end of this article, you’ll understand the ins and outs of the equivocation fallacy, complete with examples, historical tidbits, philosophy and even the psychology behind it.Other Common Logical Fallacies. Ad Hominem Fallacy: Attacking the person, not their argument. Red Herring: Introducing an unrelated topic to distract from the main argument. False Dilemma: Presenting only two options when there are more. Slippery Slope Fallacy: Arguing that a single action will lead to a chain of events, often bad ones.May 25, 2021 · 4 Logical Fallacies in Advertising. Advertisements deploy bandwagon, appeal to authority, false dilemma, and red herring fallacies to entertain and compel consumers. Ads mislead consumers by using fallacies, which present invalid or faulty reasoning to make an argument. Imagine it’s a typical Sunday evening. Slippery slope fallacy examples. Advertisers resort to slippery slope fallacies when trying to sell us a number of everyday products. Slippery slope fallacy examples in advertising Slippery slope fallacy examples in advertising The slippery slope fallacy is a common persuasion technique in advertising. By appealing to emotions such as fear or ...1. The Bandwagon Fallacy. The bandwagon fallacy is common in ad campaigns, relying on an appeal to novelty and popular consensus. An ad uses the …17 Apr 2016 ... Fallacies Philippine Advertisement. AMANTE ... Appeal to False Authority commercial examples ... CRITICAL THINKING - Fallacies: Straw Man Fallacy [ ...Jun 24, 2022 · Learn about what logical fallacies are in advertising, why advertisers use them and 14 common fallacies marketers use with examples to help you identify them. Equivocation and the Equivocation Fallacy. Equivocation is the deliberate use of vague or ambiguous language, with the intent of deceiving others or avoiding commitment to a specific stance. For example, when a person is asked a direct yes-or-no question, and gives a vague response that doesn’t answer the question, that person is equivocating.8 Apr 2024 ... Ad hominem, type of argument or attack that appeals to prejudice or feelings or irrelevantly impugns another person's character instead of ...The fallacious attack can also be direct to membership in a group or institution. Examples: Student: Hey, Professor Moore, we shouldn't have to read this book ...3.4 Fallacies in Logic ; 17. Toothpaste Advertisement. Analyze the advertisement. (See Example 5) ; 18. Fitness Equipment Advertisement. Analyze the advertisement ...Definition. Argumentum Ad hominem is discussion method to reply in a way to minimize value of opponent’s argument by discrediting him/her. Currently it’s included into Red Herring Fallacies group. This term was first defined by rhetoric scholars in classical Rome times. Then it ment using and appealing to personal point of view including appeal …Other Common Logical Fallacies. Ad Hominem Fallacy: Attacking the person, not their argument. Red Herring: Introducing an unrelated topic to distract from the main argument. False Dilemma: Presenting only two options when there are more. Slippery Slope Fallacy: Arguing that a single action will lead to a chain of events, often bad ones.Argumentum ad populum is a type of informal fallacy, [1] [14] specifically a fallacy of relevance, [15] [16] and is similar to an argument from authority ( argumentum ad verecundiam ). [14] [4] [9] It uses an appeal to the beliefs, tastes, or values of a group of people, [12] stating that because a certain opinion or attitude is held by a ....

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